1 INTRODUCTION

The project team visited Kenya over the period 14 July to 18 July 1996. For a more detailed itinerary, see Appendix J.

2 SCOPE

The report on peace operations training in the Kenya Armed Forces as presented to the survey team is presented as follows:

background: Kenyan participation in peace operations;


peace operations training philosophy;


unit training for peace operations;


the role of the Kenya Defence Staff College; and


comments and recommendations by host country.

3 BACKGROUND: KENYAN PARTICIPATION IN PEACE OPERATIONS

Kenya is fully supportive of UN peacekeeping initiatives at the international level. It is willing to contribute to peace operations which are based upon the consent of parties within the host nation, but is extremely wary of involvement in peace enforcement operations. These operations, officials argue, contradict the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of member states, as stated in the Charter of the Organisation of African Unity.

Kenya has made the following contribution to UN and regional peace operations:

Zimbabwe (CMFZ) 1979-1980;



Chad (OAU) 1981-1982, Military Observers;



Iran/Iraq (UNIMOG) 1988-1990, Military Observers;



Namibia (UNTAG) 1989-1990, troop contingent and Military Observers;



Iraq/Kuwait (UNIKOM) 1991, Military Observers;



Western Sahara (MINURSO), Military Observers;



Mozambique (ONUMOZ) 1992-1995, Military Observers;



Former Republic of Yugoslavia (UNPROFOR), Military Observers and Battalion operations, 4 rotations;



Liberia (UNOMIL), Military Observers;



Rwanda (UNAMIR), Military Observers; and



Angola (UNAVEM III), Military Observers.

In addition, the Kenyan government aided both UNOSOM and UNAMIR by providing facilities for the delivery of humanitarian aid: ports, airports, road transport, and other support.

Kenya Army officers have also occupied a number of senior UN posts, including:

Force Commander, Commonwealth Monitoring Force in Zimbabwe;



Deputy Force Commander, UNTAG, Namibia;



Chairman Joint Verification Committee, ONUMOZ, Mozambique;



Force Commander, UNOMIL, Liberia;



Sector Commander, UNPROFOR, FRY;



Senior Military Liaison Officer, UNPROFOR;



Deputy Sector Commander, UNPROFOR;



Chief of Staff, UNPROFOR; and



Garrison Commander, UNPROFOR.

Kenya also has a representative at the UN DPKO, New York.

Kenya has provided a total of 220 military observers from all arms of service, and a total of six battalions have had exposure to peace operations. The lessons learned through this experience are being put to good use, as data is collated from participation in previous missions. In addition to the national training institutions, Kenya Army officers are trained at a variety of institutions abroad, including the UK, USA, Pakistan and India. Most of these courses involve a component dedicated to peace operations and/or conflict resolution.

4 PEACEKEEPING TRAINING PHILOSOPHY

The DoD is convinced that peace operations training should proceed from the mastering of basic military skills which are fundamental to contemporary peace operations, such as the following:

command and control;


communications;


computer literacy;


navigation and map-reading;


weapon handling;


battle drills and tactics;


all aspects of patrolling by day and night;


movement control and roadblocks;


physical training; and


international law of armed conflict.

In addition, troops must have a thorough knowledge of the environment and background to the conflict prior to deployment to the mission area. The importance of training the military in human rights is emphasised. International Humanitarian Law is therefore built into all training programmes at all levels.

5 UNIT TRAINING FOR PEACE OPERATIONS

Currently, the majority of dedicated peace operations training consists of approximately three months pre-deployment training for units and personnel. The emphasis during this training is on attitudinal re-orientation, aimed at supplementing the ethos of the soldier with that of the peacekeeper through emphasis on impartiality, negotiation, mediation, etc.

Unit peace operations training focuses on the special dimensions of peace operations, as soldiers have already mastered the basic military skills prior to their selection to a peacekeeping battalion. It is therefore perhaps more appropriate to talk of peace operations preparation, rather than peace operations training. As mentioned above, this preparation focuses heavily in adjusting attitudes and approaches to the military task. The soldier is taught that the peacekeeper does not posit an enemy. Training is also oriented towards nurturing essential qualities and imparting specific skills of peacekeeping.

All Kenya Army soldiers are trained at the Recruit Training Centre for a period of six to seven months, before being posted to their units and undergoing further specialist and leadership training. This initial training includes the following aspects which relate to skills used in peace operations:

phases of war (advance, attack, defence and retro operations up to sub-unit level);



escorting, patrols, ambushes, duties of guards and sentries;



movement control (road blocks and checkpoints);



weapon handling and musketry;



endurance and physical fitness;



navigation and map-reading;



communications, including military/civilian communications facilities, linguistics, and modes of dispatch;



survival skills;



first aid, hygiene and sanitation;



administration and logistic procedures; and



terrorism and anti-terrorism.

As far as dedicated peace operations training is concerned, HQ Kenya Army is responsible for the selection and assembly of officers and troops and the training of the contingent. The latter includes:

setting measurable training objectives;


providing the logistics for training;


identification of appropriate training facilities; and


monitoring of training.

There is presently no permanent facility for peace operations training, but the Kibiku training area north-west of Nairobi has been utilised thus far to good effect.

Other responsibilities of HQ Kenya Army pertaining to peace operations are:

the equipping and maintenance of troops;


co-ordination of troop movements with UN Headquarters;


administration of personnel movements within the mission area;


administration of the families of personnel deployed in the mission area; and


the rotation of personnel.

Kenya Army provides weapons, vehicles and personal equipment for contingents, whilst additional needs are supplied by the UN within the mission area. Thus far, training on such equipment has been provided by the donor country, within the mission area.

The duration of mission-oriented peacekeeping training for all units and personnel is between six and ten weeks, depending on the nature and complexity of the operation, and includes:

the UN/OAU Charter and relevant Security Council resolutions;



the organisation of the UN/OAU and relevant organs;



civil-military relations, including interaction with civilian agencies and organisations such as UNHCR and ICRC;



International Humanitarian Law;



historical background to the conflict;



analysis of the mandate of the mission;



force composition and logistic support; and



negotiation and mediation skills.

Thus far, no background peace operations training for units and personnel has been conducted. However, a background training package has been designed and, if approved by the Commander of Kenya Armed Forces, will be integrated into basic recruit training. The necessity of designing and instituting intermediary training, i.e. between recruit and staff level, has been recognised as a further step to be taken.

No background or mission-specific training for military observers and specialists has been conducted by Kenya Army as yet. The practice has been to rely on mission-specific orientation courses provided by the UN within the mission area. This arrangement has been considered adequate thus far.

As far as dedicated training institutions are concerned, the highest level of peace operations training will ultimately be presented at the Kenya National Defence College, which is still in the start-up phase, and the first courses are still to be planned. At present, the highest level of training is presented at the Defence Staff College, Karen, the command and staff training college for the Kenya Armed Forces.

6 THE KENYA DEFENCE STAFF COLLEGE KAREN

6.1 Background and Organisation

The Kenya Defence Staff College Karen was established on 4 January 1984. Defence Staff College Karen is a Command and Staff training College for the Kenya Armed Forces. The first course was run in 1984 to 1985. This course did not include a peacekeeping package. However, the second course that was run in 1985 to 1986 included a peacekeeping package which continues to date.

The College trains officers of the rank of lieutenant colonel and senior majors from all the three services i.e., Kenya Army, Kenya Air Force and the Kenya Navy . The College also trains officers from other allied friendly African countries. The last course to be concluded had officers from Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Namibia and the Kingdom of Swaziland. The College offers peacekeeping training at staff level only. It mainly focuses on multi-national staff work. Other aspects of training, such as movement and logistics are covered in the general curricula of the colleges of the various arms of service. The College curriculum mainly focuses on a joint services concept with a slight bias on Land Operations. The various modules of the syllabus include a package on peacekeeping which is currently under review. The review aims at incorporating the current concepts of peace operations necessitated by the dynamic nature of conflicts today.

The College is fully funded by the Kenyan government. There is a student exchange programme between Kenya and the Tanzanian Staff College and a Directing Staff exchange programme between Kenya and the Staff College of the United Kingdom at Camberley. Kenya also sends students to staff colleges in countries such as the USA, UK, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.

The College syllabus runs for 46 weeks, commencing in the month of August and ending in the month of July the following year. There are 36 students, with a planned capacity of 48 students in the very near future. The students are divided into 3 syndicates of 12 students each. The methods of instruction include:

lectures, syndicate discussions, and exercises;


role-playing;


research and presentation of findings;


field exercises (TEWTS);


films/video clips; and


visits and tours.

The College is headed by a major general and a deputy of the rank of brigadier. There are three colonels, two of whom are the heads of the Writing and Teaching teams respectively. The third is the College Chief of Staff, or Colonel, General Staff in charge of the Co-ordinating Wing. There are 12 lieutenant colonels, six in each of the above teams. The ratio of the Directing Staff to the students is 1:3.

Members of the Directing Staff are selected from all the three services in accordance with their experience, knowledge and instructional capabilities. All the Directing Staff and the senior officers in the college have given instruction on peacekeeping. Most of the Directing Staff and some of the students have had previous exposure to peace operations. Of the three colonels on the staff, two are teaching or writing. One was deployed in both Iran and Yugoslavia, and also attended the MAPEX organised in 1995 by the Camberley Staff College in the United Kingdom. Six other members of the staff have been deployed in missions as observers, one whom is the sponsor of peacekeeping package and attended the Map Exercise organised by UK Camberley Staff College in Addis Ababa in 1996.

Of the 36 students on the current course, 10 have been deployed in peacekeeping missions, either as observers, monitors, staff or peacekeepers.

During the period from August to mid-September, shorter courses/seminars could be conducted on peacekeeping for a similar number of participants.

6.2 Tuition Aids

The College has the following tuition facilities and equipment:

four syndicate rooms, which can each accommodate 12 students;


a central lecture hall that can accommodate 100 students;


an audio visual room;


a library which has several peacekeeping books and publications; and


a course planning conference room.

The college is well equipped with all the training aids to be found at a modern command and staff college.

6.3 Administration and Logistics

Being a residential course, all administration is handled by the College Administration Wing, comprising of a Commanding Officer and his staff, who are also responsible for the Officers Mess which has the capacity to accommodate over 60 officers, and the Medical Reception Station (the main military hospital is 15 km away). The College is logistically supported by the Armed Forces logistic units. A telephone extension is provided for each student from an exchange that is fully integrated into the Armed Forces communication system. The exchange is also linked to the civil communication systems. The College is very accessible, being situated only 25 km from the international airport.

Once students, both foreign and nationals, have been selected for the course, they receive pre-course material at least two months prior to the course. The pre-course materials include joining instructions to students which provide all the necessary information. Students are then received by the College Administration Wing. Foreign students are met at the airport and are transported to the college.

The college accepted its first foreign students in course No 7 of 1990/91. The total number of foreign students trained so far is 29, which represents 16.8% of the total number of students trained by the college from course No 7 onwards.

6.4 Current Peacekeeping Package

The College currently devotes a total of 17 periods of 40 minutes each to UN peacekeeping. The utilisation of these periods is discussed below.

Thirteen periods of lectures on the United Nations and its specialised agencies are presented by a representative of the UNDP in Nairobi. The aim of these lectures is to highlight the background to the founding of the UN, its Charter, functions, objectives, prospects, and the functions of some of its specialised agencies.

Two periods of syndicate discussions are held prior to the conduct of the exercise, during which the following topics are covered:

introduction to UN peacekeeping;


definitions;


procedures for establishing a UN Operation;


the composition of a force;


the appointment of a UN Force Commander;


the direction and support of a Force; and


peacekeeping principles and training.

The discussion periods are preceded by background reading on past UN Peacekeeping Operations, relevant extracts from the UN Charter, and a variety of UN publications.

One and a half days (12 periods) are spent on a peacekeeping exercise. The exercise was developed by the College. It involves a fictitious island named KATAMA, about 500 km north-east of the Mauritius. A UN peacekeeping force is to be deployed in the Island. The exercise aims at imparting the following:

understanding of the complexity of contemporary conflicts;


the negotiations and procedures required before a UN mandate is issued;


the procedures for establishing a UN Operation;


the composition of the Force and the selection of the Force Commander;


deployment of a peacekeeping force; and


the maintenance of a peacekeeping force.

6.5 Proposed Peacekeeping Package

The College has identified a need to review the current training package in order to enhance the study of peace operations. The proposed package, which is currently being discussed, will be allocated 47 periods (30 periods more than the current allocation of 17 periods), and will include the following:

Lectures. 10 periods of peacekeeping lectures will cover the Organisation and Role of the UN (3 periods), UN Peacekeeping Operations (3 periods), the role of other agencies in peace operations (2 periods), and the challenges of multifunctional peace operations (2 periods).



Syndicate Discussions. 7 periods are planned for syndicate discussions on topics such as Wider peacekeeping doctrine and its future (2 periods), Co-ordination of Peace Support Operations (I period), and Case studies (4 periods).



Exercise. A map exercise, adapted from the UK Camberley Staff College, is planned to run for four days (28 periods). The exercise is designed to test all facets of peace operations from the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) to the field level.

The lectures and syndicate work will prepare students for participation in the map exercise, which is based on a complex emergency in Africa, and which requires participants to resolve the following four problems:

Problem 1 - UN Security Council. The exercise starts at the Grand Strategic level with a rudimentary simulation of a meeting of the Security Council. The students, representing members of the Security Council , will produce a resolution and a mandate for the deployment of a UN peacekeeping force in a fictitious African country named MERANGO.



Problem 2 - Planning a Peace Support Operation at the Military Strategic Level. Students, representing the staff at DPKO, will translate the mandate into a strategic directive, design the force package and make the necessary plans to deploy and support the force.



Problem 3 - Force Commander's Campaign Plan. Students, in sub-syndicates representing the staff of a multi-national force, will develop a campaign plan for the conduct of the operation.



Problem 4 - Tactical Level. Students will be required to resolve a series or problems at the tactical level, involving issues such as the use of force, consent and impartiality.

In conclusion, the Staff College has realised the need for more detailed training in peacekeeping. The review of the syllabus on peacekeeping should satisfy this requirement.

7 COMMENTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS BY HOST COUNTRY

The DoD emphasised that their participation in peace operations must be mandated and sponsored at the level of the UN, and also expressed doubts as to the legitimacy of an operation which would be mandated solely by the OAU. They emphasised that this is not to denigrate the efforts and role of the OAU, but there is concern about the ability of any regional peacekeeping initiative to maintain the essential principle of impartiality. There is also a moral and ethical dimension involved in the idea of military intervention to prevent or halt tragedies such as ethnic cleansing.

The DoD also expressed a strong desire for the development of policy at the political level which would provide conceptual clarity as to the boundaries of peace operations, so that they may participate more fully and confidently in future peace operations. There is a particular need for a common approach and doctrine for peace operations efforts at the international level. This should be clearly articulated, perhaps by the UN, so that troop contributing countries can better understand the 'rules of the game'. The contribution of the OAU in this regard would be to ensure that such doctrine took account of Africa's values, customs and traditions. This should apply to the full range of peace support operations, from preventive diplomacy to military intervention.

However, the primary area of concern lies in the area of 'aggravated peacekeeping', where self-defence may lead to a loss of neutrality and impartiality, making it difficult for the peacekeeper to respond appropriately to events. It was also felt that the UN should consult more widely with regional organisations, such as the OAU, before mandating a peace support operation in the relevant region. This would enable the Security Council to draw on regional organisations' knowledge of the causes and history of the conflict, and contribute to the formulation of more appropriate and realistic resolutions.

The DoD considers the following as the most important implications pertaining to the concept of 'wider' peacekeeping:

Sliding from peacekeeping to peace enforcement is an inappropriate response to conflict in Africa, where the basic cause of such conflict is, in most cases bad, government. Kenya also has no experience in peace enforcement operations.



Where a peace enforcement operation is transformed into a peacekeeping operation, there must be an intervening phase, consisting of a political rather than a military process, between the operations. Peace must be found before it can be kept.



Peace enforcement basically requires a decision to go to war, but without any clear war aims. There will thus clearly be a fundamental lack of political support and willingness to accept the sacrifices involved, such as casualties.



Intrastate conflict is far more complex than interstate conflict. Its causes have ethnic, religious, linguistic and cultural dimensions. This means that peace enforcement can only be considered as an absolutely last resort. Other avenues can be explored, such as extensive and intensive psychological operations before deciding on enforcement.

The DoD feels that the following guidelines should be followed when considering participation in peace operations:

The military mission must be clearly-defined, its objectives derived from political policy, and have a reasonable time-frame, as well as a mechanism for the extraction of forces.



Military forces should be inserted at the earliest possible stage of the emergency, but only after all non-military means of resolving the conflict have been exhausted.



Military intervention must result in a reduction in the loss of life, not an increase.



The peacekeeping effort must be a collective (multinational) effort under the auspices of the UN.



The military must be able to make a fundamental difference to the outcome of the situation.



The military should only be deployed in peace operations where they have a clear comparative advantage over civilian agencies.



The issue of funding should be resolved, and rules of engagement finalised, prior to deployment.



There must be the ability to maintain impartiality.

A suggestion was also made regarding the pre-positioning of equipment in a regional logistics base so that earmarked forces can train on such equipment well in advance of deployment. This would help solve the problems caused by deploying soldiers who are unfamiliar with the equipment which they depend upon. Kenya has no formalised system of standby arrangements, but can select and train a battalion-sized contingent for a specific operation when the need arises. All soldiers enlist voluntarily, so there is no constitutional impediment to the deployment of individuals in support of UN peace operations.

It is felt that the relevant experiences and lessons learnt from previous and ongoing missions are not being shared/disseminated widely enough to enable Kenya Army officers to remain abreast of the latest thinking and developments in the peace operations realm. It is therefore recommended that steps be taken at the level of both the UN and OAU to investigate and improve current practices in this regard. Suggestions were mooted on the concept of an African peacekeeping forum or an inter-army seminar, where officers with peacekeeping experience could exchange views.

Although not directly related to the issue of peace operations training, HQ Kenya Army expressed the opinion that the type of conflict which is becoming endemic in Africa can only be resolved in the long run through the inculcation of a culture of peaceful dispute resolution at the grass roots level. This would involve various civic education programmes directed towards communities at various stages of the socialisation process, i.e. from the elementary school level through to adult education. The feasibility of introducing such programmes in Africa may be investigated by the OAU.

HQ Kenya Army also expressed concern about the proliferation of small arms, such as AK 47 and G3 rifles in the northern parts of Kenya. Many of these arms were introduced by refugees and bandits who followed the refugees. The problem of combating armed banditry now absorbs an increasing amount of Kenya Army manpower, and detracts from the potential pool of human resources for future peace operations.