INTRODUCTION

Dresden, Hiroshima and the First World War: what were the moral dilemmas facing soldiers and airmen in each of these conflicts? How did they reconcile their subservience to their political masters with the devastation that they were either enduring or about to inflict? Is there a place for morality within a professional military identity and, if so, what is the nature of that military ethic?

Soldiers, sailors and air personnel world-wide find themselves in a difficult and contradictory position with regard to their moral identity. On the one hand, the instruments of violence bestow upon them awesome power. The implications of this responsibility has been dealt with extensively in the memoirs and autobiographies of innumerable soldiers. Indeed, military personnel are subject, in conflict and war, to more wrenching emotional extremes than any other human profession. On the other hand, their relationship to the civilian authorities may be problematic - corruption, inefficiency and venality being prime causes for concern.

Morality and military professionalism are not necessarily compatible in the eyes of the public. Strong stereotypes prevail, depicting the armed forces not only with disdain for questions of a moral nature, but also actively operating in an immoral or amoral manner, through their monopolising of the means of violence. The reality, however, is different. History has shown many armed forces operating on the basis of a definite military ethic. Furthermore, even if modern armed forces have not had a defined military ethic in the past, they should be flexible and adaptive institutions, capable of changing their cultures, identities, ethics and operating procedures to fit surrounding strategic environments in a state of transformation.

Determining the moral content of a proposed military ethic, therefore, is an important undertaking. In essence, it requires an integrated approach that seeks to synthesise the nature of moral discourse in general, the normative content of the present South African military professional identities, the normative challenges to a South African military ethic in the future, the proposed contents of a military ethic, and the process through which this military ethic is inculcated in the armed forces.

THE NEED TO DEVELOP A PROFESSIONAL ETHIC

The reason that necessitates the creation of a professional military ethic for the armed forces is relatively straightforward. All professions develop an ethic peculiar to the profession concerned. Two main reasons underlie the development of such an ethic:

The development of a professional ethic is inseparably llinked to the role professionals play or are perceived to play in society. The professional is sanctioned by the society in question to undertake his/her profession and therefore, the activities of the professional should be broadly consistent with the needs and values of society. As such, a contingent congruence exists between the values of a profession and the general values of society.



The more specialised and internally differentiated a profession becomes, the more likely it is to develop certain values and norms that delineate its corporate identity and govern its behaviour. Huntington’s description of military professionalism is a pertinent example in this regard.

The creation of a professional ethic, therefore, serves a fourfold purpose:

It protects the citizenry from the potential abuse of power that a profession could wield, for instance the armed forces’ monopoly of military power.



It defines the parameters within which the professional renders loyal and honourable service to his/her client.



It delineates the moral authority required by the profession to perform its tasks effectively, for example, the constitutional sanction of the right of the armed forces to take life under certain strictly defined circumstances.



It justifies the existence of the profession in question. Professions do not simply exist ‘for themselves’. Their utility and the justification for their existence are related to the services they render and the expertise with which they fulfil their functions.

Professional ethics may be explicitly stated, for instance in the Hippocratic Oath, confidentiality between lawyer and client, and the various professional codes of conduct. However, the ethical content of many professions is implicit in the profession concerned: the teacher is not only responsible for his/her wards, but also towards society in general. These unexpressed and informal values are often critical in maintaining a cohesive and credible professional ethic within the institution in question.

THE NEED FOR A SOUTH AFRICAN PROFESSIONAL MILITARY ETHIC

This article argues for the creation of a military identity with a moral dimension. The argument recognises that the technical and managerial capabilities of the military profession are inseparable components of any military identity. It provides the motivation for the creation of a professional identity that creatively combines the technical, corporate and moral components of this identity. The need for a South African Professional Military Ethic is further motivated by a range of inter-related considerations.

MILITARY PROFESSIONALISM AS AN INTEGRATED PROFESSIONALISM

The ideal model for military professionalism is, like for most professional identities, a complex amalgam of different elements. Most professional armed forces throughout history, have attempted to reconcile the honour and dignity of their profession with the skill of bearing arms, viz. the concept of ‘honour’ in Roman soldiering, the strong ethical emphasis in guerrilla armies, the tradition of soldiering in democracies, etc. The constituent components of this professionalism tend to be:

The moral basis of the profession in question. The nature of the moral authority bestowed by society, the state and the Constitution upon the armed forces to execute their tasks and its internalisation in the military profession’s moral discourse are important issues. Military professions develop, similarly to most modern professions, their own ethical codes whereby ‘meaning’ is given to the moral environment within which they work. A moral environment is determined by the values of the society in question, the political and constitutional realities of the country concerned, the provisions of international law, and the traditions of the institution in question.



The technical capabilities of the military profession. To be a good teacher not only requires a moral commitment to the ideals of education and the students in question, but also the practical ability to ‘do the job’ - classroom techniques, teaching methodology, subject specialisation, evaluation skills, etc. The armed forces, given their levels of specialisation and skills distribution, require high levels of technical competence in command, staff and specialist skills.



The corporate identity of the military profession. The armed forces, more so than other professions, develop a detailed series of traditions, customs and beliefs to which its members adhere that define and separate them from other institutions in the state ensemble.

Armed forces with strong historical and cultural ties to the British military ‘model’ tend to under-emphasise the moral component of military professionalism. In the British case this resulted, to a certain extent, from the depth and resilience of the British regimental tradition that has proved to be a capable substitute for a formally defined ethical code. Younger militaries lack this tradition and continuity and require, as a result, the elaboration and inculcation of these traditions within their discourse.

THE MILITARY PROFESSION AS A PARTIALLY DIFFERENTIATED ROLE IN SOCIETY

All professions are constituted in terms of their role in society. Their particular character and responsibilities are determined by this role, for instance the relationships between teachers, doctors, lawyers and their clients. In many of these professions there is no fundamental difference between the values and needs expressed by society and the values and norms of the profession. However, certain professions do exhibit a differentiation in the roles that they play that is not necessarily congruent with the broad values of society.1 This is justified in terms of the services that the particular profession renders to both government and society.

A lawyer may know in detail of the murders committed by his client. Under normal circumstances and as a civic-minded citizen, it could be expected of a person in possession of such knowledge to reveal it to the authorities. Failure to do so would undermine the cohesion of society and would constitute behaviour at variance with society’s values. The lawyer, however, is permitted to maintain a confidential relationship with his client simply because the violation of this trust would limit the ability of the legal profession to serve society and to gain its trust in the process.

The military, for its part, is a pertinent example of an institution with a differentiated role. Society’s values do not condone mass murder or mass destruction. Yet, its commitment to the maintenance of armed forces as defined in the Constitution acknowledges and sanctions the awesome power and destructive capabilities of armed forces in battle within strictly constructed constraints. Society does not condone the suspension or violation of civil liberties and individual rights. Yet, it acknowledges the partial or complete suspension of such rights and liberties during certain periods of national emergency, such as war for example. Precisely because the armed forces are role-differentiated in this manner, it remains imperative for society, the state and the armed forces to determine the form and content of the professional military ethic.

THE SOUTH AFRICAN PROFESSIONAL MILITARY ETHIC AND THE CHANGING STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENT

A number of reasons can be discerned for the creation of a new South African Professional Military Ethos. These relate significantly to the strategic challenges which the SANDF is currently facing and is likely to face in the future and include:

The absence of an agreement on the concept of military professionalism on the one hand, and the plurality of professional themes in the SANDF’s present discourse as a result of the integration process on the other.



The imminent deployment of the SANDF in peace operations and the implications of international law, Rules of Engagement and codes of conduct for the behaviour of the SANDF.



The adherence of the Interim Constitution to the provisions of international law and the implications of this for moral and humane conduct.

THE CREATION OF A SOUTH AFRICAN PROFESSIONAL MILITARY ETHIC AND THE MAINTENANCE OF COMBAT READINESS

In addition to the strategic challenges outlined above, there is an operational reason why armed forces require a coherent military ethic: without such an ethic, combat readiness is undermined and the cohesion and capabilities of the force will be called into question. The responsibility for perpetuating and instilling such an ethic lies at the heart of every commander’s agenda. Unless all components of combat readiness are synthesised into a coherent whole, the capabilities of the force will be limited. These include ethics, operational capabilities, training, discipline, effective command and control, and equipment readiness.

THE CONTOURS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY

Debates on the presence, or absence, of a defined military ethic often take place within a relatively restricted conceptual terrain. The anti-militarist lobby, on the one hand, proceeds from an absolutist moral position in which an appeal is made to the audience’s subjective, emotive or intuitive sentiments. The military, on the other hand, tends to respond defensively, repeating normative platitudes that either lack detailed substantiation or require further conceptual refinement and development. The ‘we are an apolitical army’ or ‘we are a professional Defence Force’ dictums are prime examples in this regard. These contending positions can lead to the undue polarisation of the debate between the different actors concerned, an unfortunate phenomenon when a common moral ground may potentially exist. It can also present moral issues in a simplistic manner that ignore the immensely complex, value-laden and contested terrain of the moral discourse itself.

As an inseparable feature of virtually all world views and metaphysical systems, morality admits to different interpretations and different adherents. Indeed, moral philosophy occupies a unique terrain in relation to other philosophies and disciplines. Moral philosophy does not appeal to the state of affairs already in existence in order to prove its validity. The veracity of moral propositions cannot be determined simply on the basis of their factual content. Unlike the propositions of science or mathematics, moral propositions are not descriptive and cannot be derived from what ‘is’. Their definition lies in their evaluative nature, in what ‘ought’ to be done to conduct our moral lives.2

THE NATURE OF VALUE

For purposes of conceptual clarity, the term ‘moral’ is used to describe, justify and recommend the correct form of action; ‘value’ describes different beliefs of both a moral and non-moral nature, and ‘normative’ refers to the overall framework within which moral and non-moral activities occur. In this article the primary focus is on the amalgam of moral and non-moral values constituting the basis of the professional ethic of the armed forces.

TYPES OF MORAL VALUES

Moral values can be divided into two different categories: universal moral values and non-universal moral values. Universal moral values are those values that are shared by all peoples regardless of the cultural and moral position occupied by them. Examples of universal moral values include those enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, such as liberty and equality. As decent and responsible members of the international community, we have a responsibility to adhere to these values and to commend them to others. Non-universal moral values are not as binding as the values referred to above. These are either inherent in or peculiar to a particular culture or nationality.

TYPES OF NON-MORAL VALUES

Non-moral values may constitute an important component of a particular professional ethic, without necessarily carrying a universal moral obligation. Within the military environment such values would include health, work satisfaction, preparation to suffer pain on behalf of comrades (‘Service before Self’) and loyalty to the profession. Others may be peculiar to the institutional culture of the armed force in question, for instance the emphasis on saluting and compliments.

WHITHER A SOUTH AFRICAN PROFESSIONAL MILITARY ETHIC?

A future South African Professional Military Ethic needs to derive its concept from the constitutional and political values as outlined in the Interim Constitution, the humanitarian and humanist values as outlined in those aspects of international law covering the waging of war, those values upon which a society’s common normative framework is based, and those values peculiar to the armed forces themselves.

THE NATURE OF THE PRESENT SOUTH AFRICAN MILITARY ETHIC

The present South African Professional Military Ethic admits to a curious mixture of values and influences. It possesses the classic British doctrine of an ‘Officer and a Gentleman’, while simultaneously admitting to the democratic traditions of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK). It contains a strong tradition of recognising the principle of civil supremacy, while also possessing a praetorian tradition best exemplified by the experiences of the TBVC armies. It is from these values that a future South African Professional Military Ethic has to be created.

THE NATURE OF THE FORMER SADF’S MILITARY ETHIC

The former SADF’s military ethic was based on three primary components, namely the doctrine of ‘the officer and a gentleman’, the officer’s Act of Commission and the Christian values as outlined in the SADF’s mission statements. The SADF was further bound by its adherence to the Geneva Convention protocols, although these were never internalised in a sustained manner within the SADF’s corporate identity.

The ethical component of the former SADF’s professional identity remained underdeveloped. Emphasis was placed on the technical capabilities of the person and the loyalty and obedience with which the soldier executed his/her duties. The normative emphasis was more inclined towards non-universal moral values, for instance Christian values, and universal non-moral values, such as loyalty, obedience, diligence and honesty.

The Officer’s Act of Commission in the former SADF was approved by the State President and it committed the candidate to service "In the name of the Republic of South Africa ....".3 While the sentiments of the Commission are noble, they remain vague and difficult to apply in practice. What is meant by the generalised reference to loyalty to "the land"? What is the explicit meaning of the different values listed in the Commission and how should they relate to the conduct of the officer in the field and the manner in which he/she perceives him/herself?

A more concrete example of an Oath of Office is provided by the officer’s commission in the USA:

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same, and that I take this obligation fully, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God."4

The USA Oath of Commission is significant in its practical reference to the Constitution as the object of allegiance and to the professional manner in which these duties should be discharged.

Prescriptions for the conduct and behaviour of former SADF officers is contained in a series of values in The Officer as a Gentleman (an idiosyncratic title in the light of the Interim Constitution’s gender sensitivity!).5 The manual outlines the behaviour expected from officers and its contents range from the traditions of officership to mess etiquette. While the manual refers to behaviour that is inherent and essential to most modern officer corps, it fails to anchor the professional identity of an officer in moral values that are universally recognised. The Officer as a Gentleman, however, makes reference to certain universal non-moral values essential to the pursuit of officership. These include traditions of leadership, selflessness, reliability, loyalty, respect for subordinates and the fulfilling of the mission. Although the bulk of the manual is essentially Anglo-Saxon in origin, there are prescriptions that are unique to South Africa, such as the insistence that an officer should be addressed on his rank and that the English term ‘sir’ is to be avoided at all times! The manual is useful as far as the expected behaviour of officers is concerned and is essential in the pursuit of officership in any modern military. Beyond this, however, its moral component remains relatively underdeveloped.

Perhaps the strongest, although equally underdeveloped reference to an explicit set of moral values within the former SADF was its assertion in mission statements of the extent to which it was premised on Christian values. This in itself was a recognition of the extent to which the old South African Constitution was predicated on the acknowledgement of a Christian deity. However, the nature of these Christian values was never explicitly defined, an unfortunate oversight given the moral centrality of compassion and humanity within the Christian ethic.

The consequences of this lack of substantiation were twofold:

Understanding these Christian values was largely left to the individual concerned and their explicit nature and its implications for operational conduct and military professional identity were never elaborated.



The Chaplains’ services became the vehicle for many of these Christian values and their subsequent elaboration, although never formally assigned to do so. They were responsible for the different denominations contained in the defence community and had to ensure that interaction take place with respective denominations in civil society. However, many chaplains attempted to introduce specific meaning to the Christian nature of soldiering, although interpretations often depended on the minister and denomination concerned.

While most former SADF members adhered to a Christian code that found expression in many instances of operational conduct, it remained an informal code throughout.

Although the former SADF admitted to a normative framework in its professional identity, it was problematised by a lack of clarity and elaboration of the values underlying it, a failure to apply these values in a military environment, and the emphasis on universal non-moral values and non-universal moral values to the detriment of universal moral values.

UMKHONTO WE SIZWE (MK) AND THE TRADITION OF POLITICAL SOLDIERING

Guerrilla armies of revolutionary parties or liberation movements derive their values from the normative framework of the party or movement in question. Although the relationship between a guerrilla army and a political movement is always symbiotic, the extent to which an army internalises a party/movement’s values depends on the prevailing normative code of the party/movement. It depends further on the normative code of the guerrilla army in question, and the nature of the relationship between the army and the movement. To understand MK’s military ethic, it is important to understand the normative framework of the African National Congress (ANC) itself. In this regard, the history of the ANC and the extent to which its struggles emanated from a particular moral perspective need to be considered. Attention should be paid to the particularising of these values in documents and strategies of the movement.

The ANC was formed in 1912 by a group of church ministers, chiefs and professionals. A strong Christian-centred value system was part of its identity and, in a sense, the early ANC was an offspring of the church. These Christian values found expression in the ANC’s campaigns prior to its banning in 1960. Early petitions made by the movement to the leaders of the Union and the British Government were characterised by a moderate tone and an appeal to reason, common humanity and universal Christian values.

Subsequent ANC strategies moved beyond the tone of these petitions, embracing various forms of passive resistance. The initiation of the Defiance Campaign in the early 1950s reflected a synthesis of Ghandian passive resistance tactics and values, with the broad Christian-centred and humanist inclination of the ANC being increasingly influenced by the humanist vision of the United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These values were manifested in the ANC’s emphasis on the moral belief in the necessity of non-violent action, its belief in basic human dignity and rights, the democratic values as subsequently outlined in the Freedom Charter, a common South African humanity, and the belief in the innate rationality of all individuals.

The Freedom Charter of 1955 formally encapsulated these values and could be read as a South African condensation of the values contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It constituted the actual strategic, political and normative Code of Conduct for all ANC and MK members and, as such, formed the centre of MK’s moral identity.

An important component of the ANC and MK’s moral identity was based on the Southern African metaphysic of ‘ubuntu’. Ubuntu can be defined as African humanism akin to the humanist philosophy developed by the former Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda. The essence of ubuntu is similar to the humanist vision of the Enlightenment and the values outlined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It requires a daily and practical humanist disposition towards the world and compassion, tolerance and fairness constitute central pillars of this philosophy.

THE INFLUENCE OF A DEVELOPING PRAETORIANISM AND POLITICAL PARTISANSHIP

The values referred to above clearly identify those that are enshrined in the moral identities of MK and the former SADF. However, those informal values that could pose a problem in the creation of a South African Professional Military Ethic are not mentioned. These are:

The partisan loyalties of MK. While MK’s identity was based on noble principles, it remained a political army. Clearly, a citizen-soldier has an unalienable right to vote for the political party of his/her choice. However, merging party-political loyalty with a constitutional military identity is an impossible task to achieve. The development of a praetorian attitude among former MK members within the SANDF, is also a potential problem. Given MK’s well-developed relationship with the current political elite, MK officers could be tempted to use their influence to further their own corporate interests, thereby undermining the values of a South African Professional Military Ethic.



The praetorian tradition of the TBVC armies. It remains a complex and thorny issue within a South African Professional Military Ethic. The TBVC armies were compelled, on the one hand, into military intervention into the administrations they had to defend, mostly as a result of noble sentiments. Yet, they developed the classical attributes common to praetorian armies: nepotism, a lack of participatory management and corruption on a wide-ranging scale. Moreover, not all officers shared these sentiments. A divide existed in the Transkei Defence Force, for instance, between the ‘military as governors’ and the ‘constitutionalists’, the latter being defined as products of the SADF’s moral code.



Praetorian attitudes in the former SADF. While the larger part of the former SADF could be described as ‘constitutionalist’ in orientation, praetorian attitudes developed among certain members of the SADF, after sustained exposure to counter-insurgency operations, exemplified by the CCB legacy; its participation in the mechanisms of government, evident in its participation in the National Security Management System; and, its political influence as a result of its relationship with the P.W. Botha-faction within the National Party.



‘Careerism’ subordinates the moral and organisational values of an institution to the personal and pecuniary ambitions of the individual in question. This problem resulted from the transformation of the former SADF into a ‘civil service’ organisation through the influence of the Public Service Commission, the effects of inflation and the lack of a clearly defined moral code in the SADF’s professional identity. It was also present in MK, although the motives were mostly personal and not pecuniary.

The potential influence of these obstacles on the creation of a South African Professional Military Ethic should not be underestimated. They are symptomatic of deeper and wide-ranging political and social problems that will take years to solve. To a large extent, the creation of a South African Professional Military Ethic will be an uneven and asymmetrical process.

THE ARMED FORCES AND THE CONSTITUTION

The Interim Constitution is the foundation upon which the present and any future South African Professional Military Ethic should be based.6 Despite the fact that the Constitution is changing, it currently represents the principles and values fundamental to South African society. At the core of the Constitution are those liberties, rights and freedoms that accrue to all individuals within a democracy and that are endorsed by the UN’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A South African Professional Military Ethic, therefore, cannot be at variance with liberties and rights outlined in the Interim Constitution. It is important to analyse these rights and liberties, the values on which they are based, and the extent to which a South African Professional Military Ethic should internalise these values in its discourse. Furthermore, the roles and missions apportioned to the armed forces in the Constitution should be examined, as the constitutional sanctioning of an armed force implies its relationship to certain fundamental values and principles. If soldiers are prepared to support and defend the Constitution, they should also be committed to the values enshrined in it.

THE OFFICER COMMISSION AND THE CONSTITUTION

An officer’s loyalty to the Interim Constitution should be based on the following provisions:

The President is the Commander-in-Chief of the SANDF. As such, he alone has the power to confer commissions on Defence Force members and the authority to revoke such commissions [82(4)(a)(iii)].



The armed forces are explicitly instructed to defend and uphold the Constitution [227(2)(a)(i)] and, by implication, the values it contains.



The Constitution is above the legislative, executive and judicial arms of government, and as such, the officer is bound to observe its conditions.



The armed forces must remain subordinate to elected government and respect the principles upon which this civil supremacy is based.

The Interim Constitution provides the normative basis for the establishment of a moral professionalism. It thus requires the identification of those fundamental values and principles upon which the Constitution is predicated.

THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS OF THE INTERIM CONSTITUTION

The core values of the Interim Constitution are outlined in Chapter Three, dealing with Fundamental Rights.7 These are binding on all branches of government, their activities, and all laws presently in force. Individuals whose rights are violated can apply for appropriate action through the courts. These rights include, among others, equality, life, human dignity, personal freedom and security, freedom from servitude and forced labour, privacy, freedom of religion, belief and opinion, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly, association and movement, political rights and access to information. The SANDF is bound by a number of related clauses to adhere to these rights:

Chapter Three [7(1)] binds all state departments, including the armed forces, to observe these rights in all aspects of their behaviour.



The Human Rights Commission will monitor the application of human rights in all areas of state and society and investigate violations thereof [116(1)].



All members of the SANDF must obey lawful orders, but may disobey when such an order constitutes a criminal offence or is in breach of those provisions of international law which are binding on the Republic [226(7)].



The National Defence Force is committed to uphold the Constitution [227(2)(a)(i)].



The President is committed to observe the provisions of the Constitution and must also uphold and defend the Constitution [81(1)]. As Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces the President, therefore, has the responsibility to ensure that the armed forces comply accordingly.

Observing these rights and values would require the development of an appropriate Officer’s Commission, a Code of Conduct, and the subsequent inculcation of these values within the training culture of the SANDF. However, the values contained in the Interim Constitution merely represent one aspect of the proposed normative content of a South African Professional Military Ethic. The Interim Constitution’s commitment to precepts of international law requires elaboration.

The core values in the Constitution have already been incorporated in the force design and strategy of the SANDF, especially during processes undertaken by the Joint Military Co-ordinating Council (JMCC). However, the doctrinal and practical details of the JMCC agreements will have to be developed in greater detail in future.

THE ARMED FORCES AND INTERNATIONAL LAW

The armed forces of all UN member states are bound to observe the provisions of international law. International law applies to conflict and specific protocols govern the activities of armed forces in this regard. An adherence to international law necessarily entails a commitment to the moral principles and values underlying it. Indeed, all laws, whether domestic or international, are based on some form of moral authority.

EXISTING LAWS OF WAR

Although a range of international agreements and treaties implicitly cover the waging of war, the seven major legislative items include the following:

The four Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 for the protection of the victims of war.



The Hague Convention of 18 October 1907, respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and the Regulations annexed to this.



The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 9 December 1948.



The Charter of the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal of 8 August 1945.

The Geneva Convention provides rules for the protection and assistance of people who are already victims of war, while the Hague Convention provides rules intended to prevent people from becoming victims of war.

THE MORAL BASIS OF THE LAWS OF WAR

Hartle outlines two principles underlying the laws of war:

Individual persons deserve respect on the premise of their innate human rights.


Human suffering ought to be minimised.

The showing of respect to individual persons is based on those universal humanitarian moral values as expressed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: the acknowledgement that all people are equal, that the individual has rights, and that dignity and respect are afforded all persons regardless of their military, national or social background.7

SOUTH AFRICA’S MULTI-CULTURAL DIVERSITY

No single cultural-normative framework can prevail in the creation of a South African Professional Military Ethic. This is reinforced by the nature of the transitional process and the extent to which the Interim Constitution recognises and affirms the cultural diversity of South Africa. It is reflected in the following provisions:

The recognition of South Africa’s different languages and the communities from which they originate [Chapter 1(3)].



The recognition of South Africa’s cultural diversity as a fundamental human right [Chapter 1(31)].



The prioritising of gender equality and equal opportunities in all aspects of life [119].

A coherent and nationally accepted value system does not yet exist in either South African society or the armed forces. The creation of such a value system will take decades. However, it is felt that the values existing within South African society at large can be merged into a coherent national value framework, being already greatly enhanced by the common values referred to in the Constitution.

These values are those that have emerged relatively intact from the transition process and that are found, albeit to varying degrees, in the different cultural communities in South Africa. Examples of these universal moral values and non-universal moral values, include a strong Christian framework within most communities, the congruence between fundamental Christian and non-Christian values in general, a commitment to freedom, equality and democracy, and the recognition of cultural and non-universal moral diversity within society at large. It is significant that these values are similar in most respects to those outlined in the Interim Constitution and the precepts of international law. The process through which these common values can be reinforced is examined below.

TOWARDS A SOUTH AFRICAN MILITARY PROFESSIONAL ETHIC: PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES

The existing realities referring to present military ethics have been outlined above. It showed a variety of moral discourses, each characterised by the particular military, historical and ethical traditions from which they emerged. A consideration of the different types of values outlined the extent to which these were present in the former SADF and MK. The present SANDF is characterised by the lack of an agreed, explicit moral concept underlying its professional identity. The future would require agreement on the concept of military professionalism, its form and content, and an appropriate training culture that would perpetuate and reinforce it. Some of these challenges and proposed suggestions are outlined below.

A MORAL MILITARY PROFESSIONALISM

Although little has been written on moral military professionalism in South Africa, what is available argues strongly for a concept of military professionalism that can be applied to a transforming democracy. According to Mertz and Cilliers8, such a concept should provide for:

the integration of the armed forces into a democratic dispensation;

the ethical, political and legal motivation for military service;

the promotion of willingness among citizens to serve as soldiers;

the enhancing of discipline and combat readiness; and

the prevention of the political abuse of the armed forces.

The product of this conceptualisation should be a soldier who has integrated his capabilities as a free person and a consciously acting citizen with his capabilities as a combat ready soldier. Examples include the Bundeswehr’s concept of Innere Führing, and Mission Oriented Command in the US armed forces.

Malan9 argues in a similar vein that the content of such a concept should include the following:

functional competence in accordance with the role and mission of the military;



an understanding of, and respect for the democratic political process and basic human rights;



political subservience and accountability;



external and internal affective neutrality;



honesty and truthfulness at all times, especially when reporting to the elected representatives of the people; and



belief in the priority of social interests over sectional and organisational interests, and the subordination of self-interest where necessary.



The frameworks provided by Mertz, Malan and Cilliers form the basis for a definition of military professionalism. However, the contents of this concept, and the process whereby it will be instilled need to be determined. The instilling of such values, however, will take a long time. It will be determined, to no small extent, by the exigencies of experience, training, education and judgement.

CONTENTS OF A SOUTH AFRICAN PROFESSIONAL MILITARY ETHIC: PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES

Determining the content of the South African Professional Military Ethic will require a comprehensive audit of all those values necessary for its establishment, as well as comprehensive consultations with all those concerned with the creation of a South African Professional Military Ethic, such as political players, the armed forces, religious groups and representatives from civil society.

Regarding the universal moral values as outlined in the Interim Constitution and international law, the creation of a South African Professional Military Ethic is a relatively straightforward exercise. The Constitution compels the state to observe these values and the armed forces, as servants of the state, are legally, constitutionally and professionally bound to reflect this in their professional ethos.

The universal non-moral values of the SANDF as represented in The Officer and a Gentleman will have to be revised in the light of changing mores and sensibilities, although the basis of the doctrine will remain intact. Attention will have to be paid to the gender bias exhibited within the doctrine of the manual, and the discrepancies between the theory and practise inherent in the doctrine.

Prescriptions on the exact content of a South African Professional Military Ethic have been deliberately avoided in this article, although the broad contours within which this value-definition is proposed, has been broadly outlined. It argues that the creation of any South African Professional Military Ethic should consider the amalgam of universal and non-universal moral values, as well as universal non-moral values that constitute the basis of any professional discourse. In the South African situation this could include the following:

the internalisation of the values contained in the Interim Constitution within the proposed South African Professional Military Ethic;



the internalisation of the values of international law within the proposed South African Professional Military Ethic;



the refining of the ‘Officer and a Gentleman’ code with regard to its applicability within a proposed South African Professional Military Ethic; and



the creation of an institutional culture within the SANDF that truly reflects the different cultures, traditions and informal values of all SANDF members.

Potential obstacles, as outlined above, could include the praetorian attitudes, careerism, and the politically partisan nature among certain sectors of the armed forces.

MORAL EDUCATION AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

The development of moral character as part of the South African Professional Military Ethic should entail the following:

Military personnel should understand the core values of the institution to which they belong. This constitutes the cognitive aspect of moral development. Without a critical and rational capacity, the ability of officers to take correct decisions will be limited.



Military personnel should adopt or commit themselves to these values. This constitutes the affective aspect of moral development.



Military personnel should act upon these moral values. This constitutes the behavioural aspect of moral development.



moral and professional military ethos forms the basis for the



development of character amongst officers. Exemplary character cannot be assumed. To create character and to ensure the development of a moral professionalism will require the following:



the institution of appropriate training and educational programmes to ensure the effective transmission of these values;



the creation of a culture within the armed forces that will allow such an ethos to thrive; and



the application of this ethic under practical, operational circumstances. It will take sustained deployment under difficult operational circumstances such as peace support operations, to prove the resilience of the South African Professional Military Ethic.

In the short to medium term, however, the educational focus will prove critical. All institutions and programmes within the SANDF should be employed towards this end. The inculcation of the South African Professional Military Ethic should take place at all levels : during basic and formative training, and at all corps and staff colleges. Specialist courses for specific deployment, such as peace operations, internal stability and international military operations, can be organised. This should be done in collaboration with training, personnel, legal and chaplains’ services in the SANDF.

The development of a South African Professional Military Ethic will require the application of an open-ended pedagogy by military training institutions and trainers, reflected in the development of new curricula. Military training tends to be teacher-centred, and characterised by a lack of innovation in methodology, design and interaction. The dynamics of education in a changing strategic environment demands a pedagogy that is interactive, participatory, focusing on analytical, synthetical and practical skills, and open-ended by nature. This is applicable to all ‘new’ areas of military education, including equal opportunities training, multi-cultural training, civic-education, and principles and application of international law.

The transmission of the South African Professional Military Ethic via training institutions will require a learning culture that caters for the following:

the creation of a moral community within the armed forces in which individuals subscribe to the values being taught and reinforce these values both inside and outside of the training institutions;



practising moral discipline in a manner that fosters moral reasoning and a voluntary compliance with moral rules;



use of the curriculum as the basis for the transmission of values. In addition to dedicated South African Professional Military Ethic courses, other aspects of the curriculum can be used to instil the South African Professional Military Ethic in military personnel: military history, strategy and management curricula provide rich areas for the teaching of moral values;



encouraging moral reflection through ongoing debates, research, reading and discussion; and



teaching conflict resolution to ensure that officers acquire the essential moral skills to be able to solve conflict fairly, reasonably and without force. This is particularly important within the context of a changing value environment.10

Above all, the transmission of values to members of the defence community will require the definition of these values in an accessible manner. These values need to be understood by all concerned. Defining values in a complex manner will render a South African Professional Military Ethic unintelligible to most soldiers, and will make the internalisation of these values problematic.

To achieve the above will require the support of a range of institutions outside the military community. Attempts to create a moral culture within the armed forces will depend on sufficient support for such programmes, the involvement of a wide range of actors in the process, the education of appropriate teachers, and the availability of those qualities required for good moral leadership. In order "[t]o teach for thinking, it is not enough to teach skills and strategies. We need to create a culture that enculturates students into good thinking practises".

CONCLUSION

A partial divide exists within the armed forces between the values of the Interim Constitution and the existing military professionalism on the one hand, and the strategy approved by the Joint Military Co-ordinating Council and the doctrine of the SANDF on the other. This is not as a result of a deliberate oversight by officers determined to cling to the old order. It emerges from the enormity of the transition process and the fact that its practical internalisation into the discourse and practise of the armed forces will take years to accomplish.

South African Professional Military Ethic cannot be created overnight. Creating a sustainable moral military identity will require time, experience, consensus and operational validation. The urgency of such a process in the current transition, however, cannot be ignored. Perhaps it is the words of the late Theodore Roosevelt that best express this need: "To educate a person in mind and not in morals is to educate a menace to society".

A.E. Hartle, Moral Issues in Military Decision-Making, University Press Kansas, Kansas, 1989.



This is derived from the writings of the 18th century philosopher, David Hume.



SADF Act of Commission.



Oath of Office, US Armed Forces.



The Officer as a Gentleman, SADF, 1 MPU, 1972.



Government Gazette 15466, Cape Town, 28 January 1994.



Hartle, op. cit., pp. 55 - 84.



South African Defence Review 8, 1993, Focus On Military and Democracy.



M. Malan, Military Culture - The need for Professional Value articulation in the Emergent South African Defence Force, South African Defence Review 13, 1993.



See the following in this regard: Educational Leadership 51(3), November 1993; Character Development Manual, Centre for Character Development, United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, July 1994.